IBP Wicked Problem

Discuss how the issues associated with broken food systems might be understood as a wicked problem. The notions of social wicked problems were first introduced in 1973 by Ritter and Webber; two Berkeley professors who published an article in Policy Sciences, that identified the characteristics that differentiated wicked problems from ordinary problems (Camellias 2008). Ritter and Weeper's article provided 10 properties that can be used as a guide to recognizing whether an issue is considered Wicked'.With the instant increasing global population, issues surrounding food production and distributed have come to light, raising the questions; is the world's food system broken? And is it a wicked problem? Studies have shown that currently the global food transport system is growing faster than the food production industry itself (Trochaic, et al 2012). Food demand is becoming a major issue among nations, and is only set to continue in the coming years, with an estimated 50% increase by 203 0 (Trochaic, et al 2012).Over consumption in the developed world has become a real issue for poorer nations who re struggling to provide basic food provisions for their people, Richard Black identifies that major governments need to start acting sooner rather than later. â€Å"We have to go beyond GAP; and either we can do it voluntarily or we'll have to do it because pressure on a finite planet will in the end make us† (Black, 2012). Adding to this, is the fact that up to 50% of food is lost in transportation, highlighting the huge amount of food wastage occurring, which if cut down would help to ease up the demand and supply chain (Law, 2011).Climate change and natural disasters are another factor contributing to the food yester crisis. As the world increases its trading and relies more on this system, elements affecting one major provider are felt globally. A catastrophic drought in Russia caused global wheat prices to rise 70% higher in 2011 compared to the previous year; causing major issues for the world's poorest people, who spend 80% of their income on food (Ford, 2011).Climate change caused by humans and natural disasters add more elements to the food system predicament, further complicating the search for solutions. The first famine of the 21st century occurred in Somalia, with experts stating that this would have never happened as humans are producing enough food to feed the world twice over (Law, 2011). The report highlights how the disaster could have been prevented through early warning systems, and a quicker response time.Archie Law brings to light two major issues contributing to the famine; one being the removal of major funding in the agricultural field; governments ignoring this need for more agriculture are simply setting up for future disaster. The second major issue is the use of land; Saudi Arabians emptied their aquifers growing wheat and can longer deed themselves. They are now purchasing land in developing countries to grow the ir own food supply (Law, 2011). This power play of rich nations adds the issue of politics into the food system, with those with the most money always coming out on top (Maxwell, 2012).Aid is not enough to fix this issue; more must be done to help the people to help themselves (Karri, 2005). The world's food system is clearly broken and needs to be addressed on a global scale. There is no definite formulation of this complex problem and the search for solutions never stops. The many elements making up this complex issue are all unique and no solution can bring a 100% fix, adding to this is the amount of stakeholders who have different opinions and expectations.These are all properties of a wicked problem (Camellias 2008), thus making the broken food system wicked.

Ethnicity and Culture in Disease Prevention Essay

Importance of addressing race, ethnicity, and culture when developing programs for prevention of disease Name: Subject: Instructor: Date: The campaigns against diseases have a number of times botched as a result of non-recognition of environmental, biological and behavioral factors as major determinants as of individual health. In public health, the three terms (ethnicity, race and culture) are often used interchangeably. The implementation of disease prevention programs in a community requires full knowledge of the health status of its members. With this regard, racial and ethnical categories often define populations in a manner that is meaningful to their health status (Nnakwe, 2009, p. 337). The concept of race, ethnicity and culture plays a significant role in understand human behavior. Thus it is rational to incorporate the aspect of race, culture and ethnicity a when designing disease prevention programs in communities. For instance, designing a disease prevention program require the use of social ecological framework. The framework focuses on interactions between an individual’s physical, cultural and social setting and thus it may be the only necessary move in a fight against disease in an ethnic group. In this case, the knowledge about a disease should not only be transferred but also needs to be cultivated thought peer support, supportive social norms and cultural values. Consider a case where the government decides to put up a facility for provision of free condoms at the core of a very conservative community as part of a program for prevention of HIV/Aids. Will such a program receive support from the community? Of course not as this will be taken as a violation of the community’s cultural values since it may lead to moral decay among its members. Therefore cultural values of a community must be addressed and prevention programs should be aligned with those values. Health care providers need to train on cultural competency in order to understand barriers and influence of culture and society on health behaviors as well as the use of behavior change tools that are culturally sensitive. Ethnicity /race may also affect, directly or indirectly, the success of a disease prevention program in a community, e. . cultural beliefs about HV/Aids (Edelman & Mandle 2005, p. 48). For example the risk of obesity starts at a person’s prenatal period. Race/ethnicity may therefore affect the prevention of obesity since it influence the timing of pregnancy, number of pregnancies together with intervals between pregnancies. In conclusion, the public health approach towards prevention of disease mus t into consideration culture, race and ethnicity within a social ecological framework as an effort towards sustaining a disease free society.

Annie’s Homegrown Video case questions and answers Essay

1) Annie knew what she wanted and had the willingness and determination to see it through. a) Annie’s person characteristics of being health conscious, willing to take chances and focusing on no only her wants and needs, but also the wants and needs of others has helped shape the success of her business. 2) The company evolved into a multimillion dollar leader in the natural organic food industry by identifying the markets and then focused on the top ten markets. In those markets Annie’s company focused on the products attributes, being realistic and willing to take chances while maintaining a high loyalty to its existing customers. In 1998 capital infusion from Consorzio and Fantastic Foods help fuel growth in Annie’s business. Consumer satisfaction and brand awareness helped get the attention of another investor Solara Capital LLC in 2002. These investors where looking to enter into the organic food market and by investing in Annie’s company they helped the growth of Annie’s business as well. So with the help from loyal customers and investors Annie’s business was able to grow. a) I think that the only growth strategies would be focusing on what the consumer wants and finding ways to provide that. The only other thing that I can see would be trying to get more product placement in stores that they are currently not in. 3) The web site has many unique feature like: a) Spreading the goodness – finding out what’s new at Annie’s. b) Taste Our Products – give a list of products with descriptions and pictures. c) Recipes and fun tab – recipes and a kids club and a way to get free stuff d) The website its self is very unique and lively, a pleasant site to visit. 4) The web site promote Annie’s mission by having it right on the home screen of the web site. It also promotes her mission be everything that is on each page of the web site, from products to articles to recipes.

Nutritional Physiology and Biochemistry Assignment

Nutritional Physiology and Biochemistry - Assignment Example According to the research findings, a number of different types of food must be consumed in order to provide the body with the energy that it needs for even the simplest of processes. Proteins must be consumed in order for the body to grow, and they are essential for the repair of the muscles, should they become damaged. Healthy fats are important to consume, as these contain vitamins, and the fat is necessary for us to survive. Minerals are important to the body's simple functions; vitamins give the body what is necessary to remain healthy, and they are soluble in fats and water, depending on what types of vitamins are consumed. Roughage is the foods that we need to eat in order to provide us with our source of fiber, and it is this fiber that enables food to be processed through our digestive tract. Finally, the last two very important elements of nutrition are carbohydrates and water. Carbohydrates are the body's most important source of energy, and water is important for all func tions of the body. Because the body is made up of approximately sixty to seventy percent of water, it is to the body's detriment if it is denied even the slightest form of water necessary for it to function. IF any of these are unbalanced in the least bit, this will cause the body to not function as it should. For one, if the body is lacking in carbohydrates, then the person will become tired and have a hard time getting tasks completed. If the body lacks water, then dehydration sets in, which can cause a myriad of problems, such as dizziness, the skin drying out, a speeding heart rate, and even death if not dealt with. Without fiber, the digestive tract cannot move; if the body is lacking in fat, then certain body processes cannot take place, such as the ability of foods to be metabolized. And finally, if vitamins, proteins, and minerals are lacking, then malnourishment can set in, and the body will not be able to heal properly, such as the muscles and tissues will not be able to r epair themselves if damaged. When nutritional balance and the appropriate level of energy are maintained, the body and its processes will run smoothly. Not to mention, health and stability will be maintained. When comparing the energy of the human body to which is measured by a bomb calorimeter, there are some differences as to how the energy is obtained. For one, the energy of a bomb calorimeter is obtained through electrical energy igniting the fuel so that the calories contained in the fuel can be measured. Secondly, pure oxygen is suppressed inside, and the combustion of these gasses, i.e. the energy that is being discharged from this technology. Gasses that have been discharged, and the water that is around the tubing is heated up, and this is contributing to the combustion. The heat and the combustion are what is the energy that is considered to be measured, which is under constant pressure. Available energy from the human body is different than that of a bomb calorimeter. Ava ilable energy is measured in a number of ways. It is measured by heart rate through various instruments, such as heart rate monitors, and it is not measured by combustion like that of the bomb calorimeter.

Identity Formation and Globalization Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Identity Formation and Globalization - Essay Example The term "globalisation", in essence, refers to the change of spatial and temporal limitations, which is the reduction of distance because of the remarkable reduction in the time required to bridge spatial differences which has, in turn, caused the slow integration of economic, social and political space across state borders. Even though, globalisation is often solely related to the financial field, which is with processes of distribution, production and consumption along with financial services and growing global trade, financial globalisation is intractably interwoven with changes in the cultural, social and political fields. In addition, globalisation is an extremely multifaceted and complex occurrence. There is, on the one hand, the tendency towards synchronisation, homogeneity, unity, integration and universalism. Also, there is the tendency for localisation, differentiation, heterogeneity, particularism and variety. These procedures are intricately intertwined. They represent, in reality, two sides of the same coin. Hence, the phrase "globalisations" is at times used to show that globalisation is not an ever-present or standardised process, but involves a variety of manifests, terrains differently in diverse contexts. The term – "globalisation" – is used to show that globalisation has different effects for individuals in diverse contexts (Cunningham, 2001). In this rapid globalising planet with all its challenges, struggles for identity have come out as one of the most outstanding traits of the cultural, social and political field.... According to the cultural scientist, this outburst has since 1996 prompted an avalanche. A few other features of modern life have succeeded in drawing the same amount of awareness. "Identity studies" has not only turned into a thriving industry, but the concept of identity has also turned into the prism through which a majority other features of modern life are premeditated. Even traditional issues of social analysis are reformulated and refurbished to fit into the identity dialogue (Cunningham, 2001). Hence, discussions on "equality" and "justice" are discussed in terms of acknowledgment of the right to a separate identity. Culture also is studied in terms of categorical, individual and/or group differences and thoughts such as "hybridity" and "creolisation". In addition, political dialogues often centre on group or individual rights. Talks about identity are, nevertheless, not limited to the ivory towers of academic circles. Also, struggles of identity have become an essential elem ent of intra-individual procedures, as well as of the political, and social scene. As such, struggles and discourses of identity have significant and extensive implications for policymaking on every level. Also, in an endeavor to develop national, local and global people-centered rules, with regard to information and communication technologies, as well as the media, cognizance will have to be taken of these struggles and discourses. Given the importance and prominence of these struggles and discourses and their far-reaching effects, this paper will look at a number of definitions of identity. In addition, it will give attention to the complicated relationship between processes related to globalisation on a variety of levels and struggles for identity. In echoing on identity discourses on

Electron Beam Lithography Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Electron Beam Lithography - Lab Report Example The linewidth has a directly proportional linear relation with the dosage provided. Lower dosage results in a decrease of linewidth; though at very low quantities, line discontinuity dominates. The relation that defines Line Dose is- Therefore, a change in line dose (which in turn affects linewidth) can be brought about by altering the beam current, dwell time or line step-size (with the last one being inversely proportional to linewidth values). The thickness of Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), which is often used as a resist in EBL, also has a linearly proportional relation with linewidth (Deng et al 2005). A reduction in PMMA thickness thins down the linewidth, and this can be done by either diluting the PMMA using Chlorobenzene, or using A series PMMA (in Anisole). Pattern resolution is primarily limited by either aberrations, or space charge. Furthermore, the feature resolution limit is determined by the forward scattering (effective beam broadening) in the resist, and the pitch resolution limit is determined by the secondary electron travel in the resist (Broers et al 1996). Reducing the beam spot size results in a decrease of the linewidth. The beam spot size is determined by two factors - the beam current (I), and the numerical aperture () - and hence, linewidth is also affected when a change is brought about in any of these factors.

South Africa Apartheid History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

South Africa Apartheid History - Essay Example Apartheid (1948-1994) cannot be considered as ‘the best solution’ for the country because it violated human rights and freedoms of black populations and caused separation between white minority and black majority. Primarily, apartheid was one of the main forms of racial discrimination, separation of white minority and black majority. Social divisions in this colonial society increasingly took on a rigid racial character1. Between 1950s – 1970s white power was used to forge one of the most extreme forms of racial discrimination in the twentieth-century world. For instance, whereas the strength and size of the settler population in the United States or Australia meant that race relations were for many years relegated to the peripheries of national historiography, race was an abiding concern even in the most inward-looking settler histories of South Africa2. Apartheid cannot be the best solution for South African because this term coincides with the concepts of racism, segregation and oppression of black population. Segregation in South Africa encompassed many different social relationships. It is often discussed as a series of legislative Acts which removed and restricted the rights of ‘non-whites’ in every possible sphere. Segregation was more than a set of restrictive legislation: it refers as well to a composite ideology and set of practices seeking to legitimize social difference and economic inequality in every aspect of life3. For instance, "Coloured" was the official apartheid designation for persons of mixed raceâ€Å"4. Many of the spatial and social elements of segregation, such as the division of churches on the basis of color, were initially governed by convention rather than law. It is important to mention the exclusion of blacks from skilled work, and especially from the exercise of supervisory functions ove r whites, was determined by custom as well as legislative

Read short story Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Read short story - Essay Example This side of the valley is symbolic of life and has a seemly association with Jig, while Hemingway links it to her desires to settle down permanently, have the child, and be in a loving relationship. However, the valley’s other side is the opposite. It is sterile, barren, bleak, and a desert landscape that has no life or animation present (Hemingway 12). This side of the valley is representative of abortion and its unwanted and deadly consequences. It is also, perhaps, symbolic of the meaningless and empty nature of the earlier relationships between the couple. In the story, it is as if the author takes the two characters and places them in a landscape, which seems to exemplify the decisions they will have to make, as well as, the major differences that stand between the two of them as individuals. The author deftly and subtly utilizes more than one aspect of the setting in the story to show significant things about what it means, which, in this case, is the valley and its two contrasting

Answer 3 required and 3 of the optional questions from the uploaded Research Paper

Answer 3 required and 3 of the optional questions from the uploaded information - Research Paper Example These financial statements are to be prepared using a predefined set of standards and guidelines, widely known as the Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) (Types of Accounting, 2013). Managerial accounting is an accounting process that reportedly produces information for the sole us of management of the organization. The form and the details to be included in the reportorial information would depend on the intricate and extensive requirements and purpose of management. It was actually disclosed that the information could be more detailed, as compared to financial accounting statements which were identified to be prepared exclusively for external uses. Thus, management could require budgets, forecasts, and financial highlights that would be used to make decisions regarding strategies and plans that would achieve identified goals. Cost accounting was noted to be a branch of managerial that focuses on monitoring and controlling costs. Tax accounting, on the other hand, as the term implies, focuses on accounting facets which are tax-related and are reportedly governed by tax rules and regulations, as well as observance to the GAAP. Governmental accounting, or also known as public accounting (or even fund accounting) was noted to be a type of accounting process and information system that is used by government agencies or public organizations. The main disparity of this type of accounting with private organizations’ accounting system is that their funds are governed by budgets set by the federal government. Likewise, the disbursement of funds are to be allocated subject to the aims or goals of the government agency. Internal auditing accounting focuses on an ongoing appraisal of the financial condition of the organization subject to conformity to accounting standards and accounting laws. Finally, international accounting is the type of accounting process or information system governed by international accounting standards, as contrasted with GAAP. 2. Describe the purposes of financial statements and corporate annual reports. The purposes of financial statements and corporate annual reports include the provision of accurate financial information to various users to serve various needs (Purpose of Financial Statements, 2013). For instance, financials statements are mandated to be published to the public to give them a general overview of the organization and provide information regarding the potential effects of the organization to the local community or to the economy, as a whole. Likewise, financial statements and annual reports are needed by management for decision-making purposes. The companies’ shareholders, on the other hand, use these financial information to determine returns on their investments and any potential risks from currently disclosed external or internal factors that impinge on the organizations’ operations. Concurrently, the investors of the organization need to be given accurate information on the financial condition and status through financial statements and corporate annual reports that contain profits, returns on investment, risks, and market value, as needed. In addition to these various users, financial statements are needed by other financial institutions, such as banks or lending institutions when organizations apply for loans or financial assistance in various endeavors. Suppliers also need the information disclosed in financial stateme

Global Inequality Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Global Inequality - Essay Example hermore, it has provided an effective platform to developing countries to develop themselves through different available opportunities in this global village. However, it is observed that such globalization has not been very beneficial for many countries, and it has affected them in a negative manner. Specifically, this paper will discuss and analyze some of the significant aspects of effects of globalization in especially developing countries. In the past, developing countries used to await the opportunity of globalization due to its characteristic of boosting economy, as well as, improvement of society standards in the country. However, recent wave of globalization has been quite different due to a number of social, economical, and cultural factors, which has resulted in an economic strain of developing economies due to globalization. In this regard, attempt of globalization has now become a debatable question for the developing countries, which will be discussed in this paper. In order to understand the consequences, it is very imperative to identify some of the pros and cons of the term globalization. In specific, it is observed that developing countries acquire the opportunities to increase their national income through presence of competition in globalized platform. In the result, such countries are able to access the capital on global level, and in other words, capital is not restricted to national level, resulting in greater opportunities for the improvement of living standards. (Prasad et. al, 2003) As earlier mentioned, information technology has played a crucial role in the advancement of globalization, and therefore, globalization allows developing countries to equip themselves with technological tools that are now essential for economic, social, as well as, cultural growth. Additionally, globalization is not only beneficial for countries on national level; however, it brings developmental and promotional opportunities for individuals as well, as an

Famine, Affluence, and Morality Essay Example for Free

Famine, Affluence, and Morality Essay By drowning, I mean those who are suffering help people. A few of the counter-arguments that Singer addresses are: One, that he government will be less likely to take responsibility because private organizations are organizing relief funds. Giving privately allows the government to escape their responsibilities of supplying aid. Singer does not believe that this assumption is plausible. He states: I do not, of course, want to dispute the contention that governments of affluent nations should be giving many times the amount of genuine, no-strings-attached aid that they are giving now. I agree, too, that giving privately is not enough, and that we ought to be campaigning actively for entirely new standards or both public and private contributions to famine relief. Indeed, I would sympathize with someone who thought that campaigning was more important than giving one- self, although I doubt whether preaching what one does not practice would be very effective. Unfortunately, for many people the idea that its the governments responsibility is a reason for not giving which does not appear to entail any political action either. Two, until there is an effective population control, relieving famine will postpone starvation. If we relieve suffering that is happening in the now, the future may end p suffering instead. The best means of preventing famine is population control. However, there are organizations who work specifically with population control. Therefore, this counter-argument is not sufficient enough to allow us to stand in the background. The third counter-argument would be how much we should be giving away. Should we be giving away more that would cause suffering to ourselves? Earlier in Singers article, he suggests that if everybody in his situation could donate E5, then nobody would be obligated to give more. He does not suggest that we give until we each the level marginal utility- the level at which by giving more, would cause as much suffering to ourselves or our dependents. Singers concept of marginal utility relates to his argument by explaining and understanding that there are some people who cannot afford to support relief funds. He simply states if everyone in circumstances like mine. This means that not everybody will be in the same circumstance to provide funds for relief. Duty and charity, according to Singer, should be redrawn or abolished. Doing good by giving money away is not considered charitable by Singer, but it is doing ood. We should refrain from buying clothes for fashion if we have old clothes that are suitable to keep us warm and give the money away instead. He says, We would not be sacrificing anything significant if we were to continue to wear our old clothes, and give the money to famine relief. By doing so, we would be preventing another person from starving. I t follows from what I have said earlier that we ought to give money away, rather than spend it on clothes which we do not need to keep us warm. This act is not considered charitable to Singer either. Our society, however, sees hese act as charitable because it is a voluntary donation. Personally, I do not completely disagree with Singers views but, I do not completely agree with them either. Jan Narveson (2004) wrote in her article Is World Poverty a Moral Problem for the Wealthy? That she does not think we owe the poor anything special. People may benefit for charities, but we should not be looked at as not the responsibility of another countrys government to take care of a poor country. It is the same as I do not think the wealthy should have to pay more taxes than the poor. We all start from somewhere and some millionaires and billionaires had to start from the bottom as well. We all work hard for the salaries we earn. On the other hand, I think that charities are used for a good cause that benefit others rather than ourselves. Singer definitely had some points that if we all give a little, the world may be a better place. Narveson also wrote in another article Welfare and Wealth, Poverty and Justice in Todays World (2004), each of us could do vastly more than we do to the needy. That we do not is a serious moral failing. This is completely true and upports Singers views as well. However, her statement is far more accurate in what we could do, rather than what we should do. My view would fall under deontological ethics. Mosser (2010) states that deontological ethics focuses on the will of the person carrying out the act in question, his or her intention in carrying it out, and, particularly, the rule according to which the act is carried out. For me this means that there could be different outcomes for Singers argument and that every aspect should be looked at. It doesnt make his view right or wrong, but it doesnt make the iews that counter his right or wrong either. Peter Singers article Famine, Affluence, and Morality, was written to convince people that our decisions and actions can prevent other countries from suffering. He suggests that people should do what is morally right by contributing financially to aid those who are starving, rather than purchasing wants for those who can afford it. Singer argues his position, provides counter-arguments, and explains his concepts for aiding countries in need. My views are not against Singers position, but they are not for his position either. References Mosser, K. 2010).

Translation and Technology Essay Example for Free

Translation and Technology Essay Contents List of Figures, Tables and Boxes Series Editors’ Preface Acknowledgements List of Abbreviations Introduction 1 Definition of Terms Machine translation Human-aided machine translation Machine-aided human translation Human translation The localization industry Conclusion 2 Translation Studies and Translation Technology Translation theory Academic and professional groups in translation Linguistic theories in machine translation systems Translation studies The translation process Conclusion 3 Machine. Translation Systems Major historical developments Architectures Hybrid and interactive  machine translation systems Online machine translation systems Commercial machine translation systems Reasons for using machine translation systems Conclusion vii ix xii xiv xvi 1 6 8 11 13 14 19 20 22 22 26 30 36 43 55 57 58 66 84 85 87 89 91 viii Contents. 4 Computer-Aided Translation Tools and Resources Workbenches Translation support tools and resources Localization tools Commercial computer-aided translation tools Standards for data interchange Conclusion 5 Evaluating Translation Tools Machine translation systems Computer-aided translation tools Stakeholders Evaluation methods General frameworks for evaluating translation tools Conclusion 6 Recent Developments and Future Directions Machine translation systems Computer-aided translation tools Translation systems with speech technology. Translation systems for minority languages Translation on the web Machine translation systems and the semantic web The localization industry Conclusion 7 Translation Types Revisited Relationships between topics and translation types Machine translation systems Computer-aided translation tools Conclusion Appendices References Index 93 93 106 113 117 119 128 129 129 131 133 135 139 151 152 152 156 157 162 164 166 170 171 172 173 191 193 195 197 204 218 List of Figures, Tables and Boxes Figures 1. 1 1. 2 1. 3 1. 4 1. 5 2. 1 2. 2 2. 3 2. 4 2. 5 2. 6 2. 7 2. 8 2. 9 2. 10 2. 11 2. 12 2. 13 3. 1 3. 2 3. 3 3. 4 3. 5 3. 6 3. 7 3. 8 3. 9. Classification of translation types Machine translation model Machine translation system based on usage Human-aided machine translation model Machine-aided human translation model Chronology of translation theories Translation process model Example of sentence representations Holmes’ schema of translation studies. A schema of  applied translation studies A model of the translation process including pre- and post-editing tasks Example of an English SL text and its pre-edited version Unedited and post-edited Spanish machine translation output Example of natural and controlled languages Example of original English text and its AECMA simplified English version Example of natural English, simplified English and simplified Arabic texts Example of an English controlled language text and its translations Illustration of the translation process using a machine translation system. Chronology of machine translation development Example of structural representations Machine translation architectures Direct translation model Interlingua model Interlingua multilingual machine translation system model Transfer model Transfer using tree-to-tree parsing Transfer multilingual machine translation system model ix 7 9 10 12 13 23 29 31 37 42 43 44 46 48 50 51 53 54 58 68 68 70 72 72 74 75 76 x List of Figures, Tables and Boxes 3. 10 3. 11 3. 12 3. 13 4. 1 4. 2 4. 3 4. 4 4. 5 4. 6 4. 7 4. 8 4. 9 4. 10 4. 11 4. 12 4. 13 4. 14 4. 15 4. 16 4. 17 4. 18 4. 19 4. 20 4. 21 4. 22 5. 1 5. 2 5. 3 5. 4 5. 5 6. 1 6. 2. Statistical-based model Probabilities workflow in the statistical-based approach Example-based model Translations by online machine translation systems Example of HTML code in a web page Example of the web page without HTML code Example of a translation workflow using a translation memory system Example of an English source text Pre-translation 1 Database model in translation memory systems Reference model in translation memory systems. Flowchart to illustrate how to build a parallel corpus Example of a text header in a corpus Example of part-of-speech tagging Example of a concordance for the word ‘round’ Types of tool used in a localization project Example of the translation process using a machine translation system, a translation database and a terminology database Example of TMX  data-sharing Example of a header in TMX. Example of a body in TMX Example of a header in TBX Example of a body in TBX Example of XLIFF in the localization process Example of a header in XLIFF Example of a body in XLIFF Example of an alternate translation element in XLIFF Example of a glass-box evaluation Example of a black-box evaluation Example of an evaluation process Standardization projects for evaluating machine translation systems EAGLES general evaluation framework Future-use model of translation technology. Speech technology in translation 78 80 81 87 99 99 102 102 103 103 104 109 110 111 112 114 117 120 121 122 124 125 126 127 127 127 138 139 141 142 145 154 158 Tables 1. 1 3. 1 An example of a table for describing translation types Example of a word entry in KAMI 8 67 List of Figures, Tables and Boxes xi 3. 2 3. 3 3. 4 4. 1 4. 2 4. 3 4. 4 4. 5 4. 6 4. 7 4. 8 7. 1 7. 2 7. 3 7. 4 7. 5 7. 6 7. 7 7. 8 7. 9 7. 10 7. 11 7. 12 7. 13 7. 14 7. 15 7. 16 7. 17 7. 18 7. 19 7. 20. Imitation in the example-based approach Semantic similarity in the example-based approach Classification of commercial machine translation systems Example of perfect matching Examples of fuzzy matching Higher and lower threshold percentages for fuzzy matching Examples of matching suggestions for ‘bow’ Example of segments Example of translation units Example of English-French translation units from a database. Classification of commercial computer-aided translation tools Degree of automation Human intervention Integrated tools Application of theory Application of theory in machine translation systems Source-language texts Target-language texts Stages of the translation process Types of text Language dependency Types of source language Data interchange standards in translation Translation groups. and data interchange standards Levels of evaluation Methods of evaluation Features in a machine translation system Language coverage in machine translation systems Texts and computer-aided translation tools Language dependency in computer-aided translation tools Number of languages in computer-aided translation tools 82 82 88 95 96 97 98 100 101 102 118 174 175 175 176 177 178 180 181 182 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 193 194 194 195 Boxes 1. 1 5. 1 A translator at work FEMTI evaluation framework 14 147 Series Editors’ Preface Recent years have witnessed momentous changes in the study of Modern Languages, globally as well as nationally. On the one hand, the rapid growth of English as a universal lingua franca has rendered the command of other languages a less compelling commodity. On the other hand, the demand for intercultural mediators including translators and interpreters has grown as a result of many recent social, political and economic developments; these include legislative changes, the emergence of supranational organisations, the ease of travel, telecommunications, commercial pressures raising awareness of local needs, migration and employment mobility, and a heightened awareness of linguistic and human rights. Today, linguistically oriented students wishing to pursue a career in which they are able to further their interest in languages and cultures would be more inclined to choose vocationally relevant courses in which translation and interpreting play an important part rather than traditional Modern Language degrees. Thus the possibilities for professional work in translation and interpreting have been extended, particularly as a result of developments in technology, whether as facilitating the translation process or as a means of dissemination and broadening access to communications in a range of media. The role of translation is, for example, becoming increasingly important in the context of modern media such as television and cinema, whether for documentary or entertainment purposes. And the technological possibilities for providing interpreting services, whether to the police officer on the beat or to the businessperson on a different continent, have extended the previously physically confined nature of mediating the spoken word. Not only do these new vistas open up opportunities for the professional linguist, they also point to expanding areas of research in Translation and Interpreting Studies. Practice and theory are of mutual benefit, especially in the case of a relatively young discipline such as Translation Studies. As a result, the first aim of this series, written primarily for the MA and advanced undergraduate student, is to highlight contemporary issues and concerns in order to provide informed, theoretically based, accounts of developments in translation and interpretation. The second aim is to provide ready access for students interested in the study and pursuit of Modern Languages to xii Series Editors’ Preface xiii vocational issues which are of relevance to the contemporary world of translating and interpreting. The final aim is to offer informed updates to practising professionals on recent developments in the field impacting on their discipline. Linguistic, Culture and Translation Studies University of Surrey Guildford UK GUNILLA ANDERMAN MARGARET ROGERS Acknowledgements I am indebted to three individuals for their contributions. This book would have taken more time to complete if it had not been for Chooi Tsien Yeo who researched background information for me. Words cannot express my gratitude to Stephen Moore, in between translation deadlines, for putting his experiences as a professional translator into writing. I am extremely indebted to Paul Marriott for his comments and suggestions, particularly on helping to visualize a new way to depict the multidimensional classification of translation types in Chapter 7. I would like to acknowledge especially the Duke University Libraries and Institute of Statistics and Decision Science at Duke University in providing me with the environment and research facilities where most of this book was written. Also my thanks to the National University of Singapore Libraries, George Edward Library at the University of Surrey, and the Department of Statistics and Actuarial Science at the University of Waterloo for their help. I would also like to acknowledge the following authors, publishers and organizations for allowing the use of copyright material in this book: John Hutchins, Harold Somers and Elsevier (Academic Press Ltd) for the classification of translation types in Chapter 1; Eugene Nida and the Linguistic Society of America for the translation process in Chapter 2; John Smart and Smart Communications, Inc. for the controlled and simplified English samples in Chapter 2; Francis Bond and Takefumi Yamazaki for the KAMI Malay–English dictionary entry in Chapter 3; Paolo Dongilli and Johann Gamper for the building of a parallel corpus in Chapter 4; Tony Jewtushenko and Peter Reynolds of OASIS for XLIFF in Chapter 4; Enrique de Argaez at Internet World Stats for the statistical figure on the Internet population in Chapter 6; Michael Carl, Reinhard Schaler, Andy Way, Springer Science and Business Media, and Kluwer Academic Publishers for the model of the future use of translation technology in Chapter 6. To Antonio Ribeiro, Tessadit Lagab, Margaret Rogers and Chooi Tsien Yeo, my most sincere thanks for translating from English into Portuguese, French, German and Chinese respectively. I am solely responsible for any translation errors that occurred. A special thank you goes to Elsie Lee, Shaun Yeo, Angeliki Petrits, Mirko Plitt and Ken Seng Tan for answering some of my queries. xiv Acknowledgements xv  To Caroline, Elizabeth, Gillian and Lyndsay, thank you for helping out with keying in corrections on the earlier drafts. Lastly, to my ‘sifu’ and friend Peter Newmark, a big thank-you for all the translation discussions we had during our coffee–biscuit sessions years ago. If it had not been for the series editors, Gunilla Anderman and Margaret Rogers, this book would not have been written. I am forever grateful to both of them for their feedback and comments. Thanks to Jill Lake of Palgrave Macmillan for her patience and understanding due to my ‘country-hopping’ from Southeast Asia to North America during the writing of this book. Waterloo, Canada CHIEW KIN QUAH List of Abbreviations. ACRoTERMITE AECMA AIA ALPAC ALPS ALT-J/C ALT-J/E ALT-J/M AMTA ASCC ASD ATA BASIC BLEU BSO CAT CAT2 CESTA CFE CIA CICC CRATER CTE CULT DARPA DBMT DIPLOMAT DLT DTS EAGLES EARS EDIG Terminology of Telecommunications European Association of Aerospace Industries Aerospace Industries Association of America Automatic Language Processing Advisory Committee Automatic Language Processing System Automatic Language Translator Japanese to Chinese Automatic Language. Translator Japanese to English Automatic Language Translator Japanese to Malay Association of Machine Translation in the Americas Automatic Spelling Checker Checker AeroSpace and Defence American Translators Association British American Scientific International, Commercial Bilingual Evaluation Understudy Buro voor Systeemontwikkeling Computer-Aided Translation Constructors, Atoms and Translators Campagne d’Evaluation de Systemes de Traduction Automatique Caterpillar Fundamental English Central Intelligence Agency Center of International Cooperation for Computerization Corpus Resources and Terminology Extraction Caterpillar. Technical English Chinese University Language Translator Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency Dialogue-based Machine Translation Distributed Intelligent Processing of Language for Operational Machine Aided Translation Distributed Language Translation Descriptive Translation Studies Expert Advisory Group on Language Engineering Standards Effective, Affordable Reusable Speech-to-Text European Defence Industries Group xvi List of Abbreviations xvii. ELDA ELRA ENGSPAN ENIAC EURODICAUTUM EUROSPACE EUROTRA EVALDA EWG FAHQT/FAHQMT FEMTI GENETER GETA HAMT HICATS HT HTML IAMT IATE INTERSECT ISI ISLE ISO JEIDA JEITA JICST-E KAMI KANT KGB LDC LISA LMT LTC LTRAC MAHT MANTRA MARTIF Evaluations and Language resources Distribution Agency European Language Resources Association English Spanish Machine Translation System Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer European. Terminology Database Aerospace  and Defence Industries Association of Europe European Translation Infrastructure d’EVALuation a ELDA Evaluation Working Group Fully Automatic High Quality (Machine) Translation A Framework for the Evaluation of Machine Translation in ISLE Generic Model for Terminology Groupe d’Etude pour la Traduction Automatique Human-Aided/Assisted Machine Translation Hitachi Computer Aided Translation System Human Translation HyperText Markup Language International Association of Machine Translation Inter-Agency Terminology Exchange International Sample of English Contrastive. Texts International Statistical Institute International Standards for Language Engineering International Organization for Standardization Japan Electronic Industry Development Association Japan Electronics and Information Technology Association Japan Information Center of Science and Technology Kamus Melayu-Inggeris (Malay-English Dictionary) Knowledge-based Accurate Translation Komitet Gosudarstvennoi Bezopasnosti Linguistic Data Consortium Localisation Industry and Standards Association Logic-based Machine Translation Language Technology Centre Language Translation Resources Automatic Console Machine-Aided/Assisted Human Translation Machine Assisted Translation Machine Readable Terminology Interchange Format xviii List of Abbreviations. MASTOR MAT METAL METU MLIR MT NAATI NIST OASIS OCP OCR OLIF OS OSCAR PaTrans PAHO PDA PESA RDF RFC SALT SGML SPANAM SUSY SYSTRAN TAP TAUM TBX TEMAA TGT-1 THETOS TMF TMX TOLL TONGUES TS TTS Multilingual Automatic Speech-to-Speech Translator Machine-Aided/Assisted Translation Mechanical Translation and Analysis of Language Middle East Technical University MultiLingual Information Retrieval Machine. Translation National Accreditation Authority for Translators and Interpreters Ltd. National Institute of Standards and Technology Organization for the Advancement of Structured Information Standards Oxford Concordance Programme Optical Character Recognition Open Lexicon Interchange Format Operating System Open Standards for Container/Content Allowing Re-use Patent  Translation Pan-American Health Organization Personal Digital Assistant Portuguese-English Sentence Alignment Resource Description Framework Request for Comments Standards-based Access to Lexicographical Terminological Multilingual Resources Standard Generalised Markup. Language Spanish American Machine Translation System Saarbrucker UbersetzungsSYstem System Translation Think-Aloud Protocols Traduction automatique a l’Universite de Montreal TermBase eXchange Testbed Study of Evaluation Methodologies: Authoring Aids Text-into-Gesture Translator Text into Sign Language Automatic Translator for Polish Terminological Markup Framework Translation Memory eXchange Thai On-Line Library Act II Audio Voice Translation Guide Systems Translation Studies Theoretical Translation Studies List of Abbreviations xix WebDIPLOMAT WebOnt WWW W3C XLIFF XLT XML Web Distributed Intelligent Processing of Language for Operational Machine Aided Translation Web Ontology World Wide Web WWW Consortium XML Localisation Interchange File Format XML Representation of Lexicons and Terminologies Extensible or Extensive Markup Language This page intentionally left blank Introduction For over half a century, the demand for a variety of translations by different groups of end-users has enabled many types of translation tools to be developed. This is reflected in the systems that will be discussed in this book, ranging from machine translation systems, computer-aided translation tools and translation resources. The majority of books and articles on translation technology focusing on the development of these systems and tools have been written from the point of view of researchers and developers. More recent publications written with translators in mind have focused on the use of particular tools. This book is intended as an introduction to translation technology for students of translation. It can also be useful to professional translators and those interested in knowing about translation technology. A different approach is taken in that descriptions of particular tools are not provided, and the development of different machine translation and computer-aided translation tools and their uses are discussed. Programming details and mathematical equations are not considered, except in the discussion of the statistical approach to machine translation where minimal essential formulae are included. Descriptions are given to allow readers to further investigate specific approaches or issues that might interest them, using references cited throughout the book. It is also important to note that no particular approach or design is deemed to be better than any other. Each and every one has their strengths and weaknesses. In many cases, readers will find that examples of systems and tools are given but this does not suggest that they are the best; they are simply examples to illustrate the points made. 1 2 Translation and Technology While researching this book, I discovered that the majority of publications from the literature on translation technology are about the development of machine translation systems, primarily involving experimental systems developed or being developed at a number of universities and large commercial corporations across the globe. The book will show that many of these systems never achieved their commercial potential and remained as experimental tools, while some others served as tools for other natural-language processing applications. By contrast, not much literature seems to be available on computeraided tools such as translation memory systems. As we shall see in this book, most computer-aided translation tools are developed by commercial companies and, as a result, progress reports on these tools are rarely published in the public domain. Furthermore, to cater to different needs and demands, a tool like a translation memory system comes in many versions from the most basic to the most advanced. Insights into the use of these tools can be found in translator magazines and occasionally also posted on the World Wide Web (WWW). The evaluation of translation tools falls into a field that is wellresearched. Again we will see that most of the literature focuses on the evaluation of machine translation systems. Furthermore, the extensive use of translation tools and translation processes involved in the localization industry tend to be discussed separately, giving the impression that they are not related to translation. These two areas are, however, directly relevant to translation technology. Hence they are also included in this book. Essentially, the book contains what is felt should be included in order to provide an overview of translation technology. In order to keep the book at the given length, the topics have been carefully selected with some described in greater detail than others. In some chapters, an abbreviated historical background has been deemed necessary in order to provide a better understanding of the topics discussed, especially in the description of the development of machine translation systems and their evaluation. However, in all cases, references have been provided which readers may choose to pursue at a later time. Suggestions for further reading are provided at the end of every chapter (Chapters 1 to 6). The first chapter discusses the definitions of terms referring to the use of computers in translation activities. Some of the terms can be confusing to anyone who is unfamiliar with translation tools. In some cases, the same translation tools are given different names depending on what they are used for; in other cases, a tool may be differently classified depending on the perspective of those who have developed that tool. Introduction 3 The aim in this chapter is therefore to clarify these terminological and related matters. An alternative perspective to the four basic translation types – fully automated high-quality machine translation, human-aided machine translation, machine-aided human translation, and human translation – first proposed by Hutchins and Somers (1992) is introduced to reflect current developments in translation technology. This will be explored in more detail in the final chapter where the four translation types are reviewed in relation to topics described in the book. The second chapter discusses technology within the larger framework of Translation Studies as a discipline, focusing on the relationship between the engineering of translation technology, on the one hand, and Translation Studies including translation theory, on the other hand. The relationship between academic and professional groups involved in translation is also examined. This in turn leads to a discussion of the involvement of a particular approach in linguistic theories – known as ‘formalisms’ in natural-language processing – especially in the design of machine translation systems. A different perspective on the translation process involving pre- and post-editing tasks using a special variety of language called ‘controlled language’ is also presented. This translation process is described using the translation model proposed by Jakobson (1959/2000), a translation model that differs significantly from the one proposed by Nida (1969). The third chapter gives detailed descriptions of different machine translation system designs also known as ‘architectures’. The development of machine translation over several decades, its capabilities and the different types of machine translation systems, past and present, are also included. Both experimental and commercial systems are discussed, although the focus is on the experimental systems. Even though machine translation has been well-documented elsewhere, a discussion is deemed to be important for this book. It is felt that modern-day professional translators should be informed about machine translation systems because there is every reason to believe, as we shall discover in Chapter 6, that future trends in translation technology are moving towards integrated systems where at least one translation tool is combined with another, as is already the case in the integration of machine translation with translation memory. The fourth chapter describes the architectures and uses of several computer-aided translation tools, such as translation memory systems, as well as resources such as parallel corpora. Unlike machine translation systems, which are largely developed by universities, most computeraided translation tools are developed by commercial companies. Thus, 4 Translation and Technology information about such tools is harder to obtain. This chapter will also show that computer-aided translation tools are becoming more advanced and using different operating systems, and so ‘standards for data interchange’ have been created. Three different standards are described. Currently available commercial translation tools are also discussed. In addition, this chapter presents an overview of other commercially available tools such as those used in the localization industry. The fifth chapter touches on the evaluation of translation technology. The discussion focuses on different groups of stakeholders from research sponsors to end-users. Also included in the discussion are the different methods of evaluation: human, machine, and a combination of human and machine as evaluator. The choice of method used depends on who the evaluation is for and its purpose. It also depends on whether an entire tool or only some components are evaluated. Also described in this chapter is the general framework of evaluation offered by various research groups in the USA and Europe. The literature on evaluation concentrates on the evaluation of machine translation systems either during the developmental stage or after the process of development is completed. Less information is available on the evaluation of computeraided translation tools. What is available is found mainly in translation journals, magazines and newsletters. The sixth chapter presents some recent developments and shows the direction in which translation technology is heading, in particular regarding the future of machine translation systems that are now incorporating speech technology features. The integration of speech technology and traditional machine translation systems allows translation not only between texts or between stretches of speech, but also between text and speech. This integration is proving to be useful in many specific situations around the globe especially in international relations and trade. This chapter also looks at research projects in countries that are involved in the development of translation tools for minority languages and discusses the problems encountered in developing machine translation systems for languages that are less well-known and not widely spoken. Another form of technology called the ‘Semantic Web’ that has the potential to improve the performance of certain machine translation systems is also described. Included in this chapter, too, are issues such as linguistic dominance and translation demands on the WWW that are already shaping parts of the translation industry. The book concludes by presenting an expanded version of the four basic classifications of translation types as suggested by Hutchins and Somers (1992) and introduced in Chapter 1. It is concluded that the Introduction 5 one-dimensional linear continuum originally proposed is no longer able to accurately reflect current developments in translation technology. Translation tools today come in different versions and types depending on the purposes for which they are built. Some are multifunctional while others remain monofunctional. An alternative way must therefore be found to depict the complexities and multidimensional relationships between the four translation types and the topics discussed in this book. It is not possible to put every single subject discussed here into one diagram or figure, and so, in order to gain a better understanding of how the issues are related to one another, they are divided into groups. Topics or issues in each group have a common theme that links them together, and are presented in a series of tables. However, it is important to bear in mind that not all topics can be presented neatly and easily even in this way. This clearly shows the complexity and multidimensionality of translation activities in the modern technological world. At the end of the book, several Appendices provide information on the various Internet sites for many different translation tools and translation support tools such as monolingual, bilingual, trilingual and multilingual dictionaries, glossaries, thesauri and encyclopaedia. Only a selected few are listed here, and as a result the lists are not exhaustive. It is also important to note that some Internet sites may not be permanent; at the time of the writing, every effort has been made to ensure that all sites are accessible. 1 Definition of Terms In translation technology, terms commonly used to describe translation tools are as follows: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ machine translation (MT); machine-aided/assisted human translation (MAHT); human-aided/assisted machine translation (HAMT); computer-aided/assisted translation (CAT); machine-aided/assisted translation (MAT); fully automatic high-quality (machine) translation (FAHQT/FAHQMT). Distinctions between some of these terms are not always clear. For example, computer-aided translation (CAT) is often the term used in Translation Studies (TS) and the localization industry (see the second part of this chapter), while the software community which develops this type of tool prefers to call it ‘machine-aided translation’ (MAT). As the more familiar term among professional translators and in the field of Translation Studies, ‘computer-aided translation’ is used throughout the book to represent both computer-aided translation and machine-aided translation tools, and the term ‘aided’ is chosen instead of ‘assisted’, as also in ‘human-aided machine translation’ and ‘machine-aided human translation’. Figure 1. 1 distinguishes four types of translation relating human and machine involvement in a classification along a linear continuum introduced by Hutchins and Somers (1992: 148). This classification, now more than a decade old, will become harder to sustain as more tools become multifunctional, as we shall see in Chapters 3, 4 and 6. Nevertheless, the concept in Figure 1. 1 remains useful as a point of reference for classifying translation in relation to technology. 6 Definition of Terms 7 MT CAT Machine Fully automated high quality (machine) translation (FAHQT/ FAHQMT) Human-aided machine translation (HAMT) Machine-aided human translation (MAHT) Human Human translation (HT) MT = machine translation; CAT = computer-aided translation Figure 1. 1 Source: Classification of translation types Hutchins and Somers (1992): 148. The initial goal of machine translation was to build a fully automatic high-quality machine translation that did not require any human intervention. At a 1952 conference, however, Bar-Hillel reported that building a fully automatic translation system was unrealistic and years later still remained convinced that a fully automatic high-quality machine translation system was essentially unattainable (Bar-Hillel 1960/2003: 45). Instead, what has emerged in its place is machine translation, placed between FAHQT and HAMT on the continuum of Figure 1. 1. The main aim of machine translation is still to generate translation automatically, but it is no longer required that the output quality is high, rather that it is fit-for-purpose (see Chapters 2 and 3). As for human-aided machine translation and machine-aided human translation, the boundary between these two areas is especially unclear.

How Hearing Impairment Can Impact Psychology Essay

How Hearing Impairment Can Impact Psychology Essay For this assignment I aim to focus on the importance of lifespan development theory when appreciating the effects of hearing impairment on an individual. I aim to concentrate on the lifespan development of a child in its infancy stage (0-2 years). Human development or also known as the developmental psychology is the study of systematic emotional changes, psychological changes and social changes that occur throughout an individuals life span. The study analyses the individuals physical development, cognitive development which involves learning, interaction and problem solving and emotional and intellectual development. By evaluating human development it is effortless to understand the changing or arrangement of beliefs, worry, desires and skills that occur at different periods of the life cycle (Mussen et al., 1974). Hearing is now clearly identified as being crucial to early communication, speech and language development and active learning. Children with hearing impairment may therefore lag behind in communication skills, intellectual achievement and social performance. Therefore as a healthcare professional it is valuable to appreciate the different stages of lifespan development when trying to understand the individuals awareness and behaviour. The earlier the hearing impairment is recognized and treated the smaller the severity of the impact on the development of the child (ASHA, 2012). Case scenario In order to respect patient confidentiality I will use the name Ellie for my case scenario. Ellie is a 1 and a half year old girl who attended the appointment for a hearing test with her mum and her four siblings. Ellie is part of a big family of seven and Ellies mother is a very heavy smoker and smoked all through her pregnancy with Ellie. Her mother reports that Ellie is quite an aggressive girl and doesnt attempt to socialise with her siblings and other children her age. In addition, she reports that Ellie doesnt pay attention to her when given requests or instructions. Ellie passed her new-born hearing screening, however after great encouragement from us Audiologist VRA (visual reinforcement audiometry) and tympanometry was performed revealing that Ellie has a moderate flat conductive hearing loss. Due to concerns of Ellies lack of speech and language development and behaviour problems, valuable information about grommets or a hearing aid was supplied to the mother. However, Elli es mother was in disagreement about any of these options. Therefore Ellie was given a follow up appointment to see how she is getting on. I have chosen this case I will be able to truly see how hearing impairment affects the physical, social and cognitive development of an infant. Discussions In order to assess an infants condition immediately after birth it has now become essential to perform a quick test such as an APGAR test devised by Virginia Apgar in 1953 (MedlinePlus, 2009). This assessment is taken place instantly on the new-born to detect how well the heart is beating, their colour, respiratory rate, general response to stimulation and their muscle tone. The new-borns are then given an Apgar score which is rated out of 10, with a score above 7 meaning the new-born is in no danger, and a score of 4-6 meaning the new-born has some difficulty breathing and may have possible long term risks. However with an Apgar score of less than 3 the new-born is said to be in a critical condition and requires immediate special support or treatment (Bee and Boyd, 2007). From the gathered history taken from Ellies mother, Ellie underwent a normal birth with no significant abnormalities occurring therefore Ellie must have been given an Apgar score of above seven. According to Arnold Gesell children develop at different rates, however their patterns of development are all constant (Mussen et al.,1974). The development of an infant can be analysed in three different ways- their physical development, social and cognitive development. Physical development is at its greatest between the ages of 0-2 years and is essential for children providing them with the abilities to seek the world around them. For the first year of a childs life the main apparent physical development is the immense growth changes that occur to the body. By the age of one the body length would have increased over a third of the original length (20 inches) and the weight would have gained approximately triple the original weight (7.5pounds). These physical developmental changes proceeds from the head downwards (Cephalocaudal) to the trunk outwards (Proximodistal) (Fitxgerald et al.,1977). Therefore by having these normative values we can tell if a childs physical development is lacking. Ellie was born as a low birth weight baby possibly as a result of the mother smoking throughout the pregnancy. Low birth weight babies like Ellie generally progress slower through the developmental stages but generally catch up in the first two years (Vasta et al., 1999). However Ellie is now one and a half and has no apparent physical developmental abnormalities. The bones of an infant are much softer than adults bones as a result of higher water content. These bones then harden through the developmental stages of an individual up to adolescence in a process called ossification. A new-born babys skull has the ability to compress without damage during birth as it is separated by spaces named fontanels. By Ellies age the fontanels would have been replete with bone developing into a singular combined skull bone (Bee and Boyd, 2004). In the first few years of an infants life there is an accelerated growth in the human brain with the greatest development occurring in the midbrain. The cerebral cortex and the cerebrum enclose the midbrain and control the construction of language, consciousness, problem solving, thinking and learning. Thus an infants life commences with a set of beneficial natural responses called reflexes. A reflex is an involuntary movement in response to any stimuli. According to the psychologist Jean Piaget the beginning of an i nfants life is all to do with movement and so most of the infants actions are reflexive (Davenport, 1994). Most of these reflexes may be adaptive reflexes or also known as survival reflexes in which assists the infant to swallow, breath, grasp or suck involuntary. Whilst the primitive reflexes are not essential for their survival, it only gives a good suggestion of the status of the infants neurological system. Examples may be of the Babisnki reflex (as the sole of an infants foot is stroked the big toe enhances with the other toes spreading outwards) ; and the Moro reflex (startle reflex extending arms and legs after loud noises). With Ellies case these reflexes have disappeared which is normal for her age and demonstrates that there is no damage to her nervous system (Mussen et al., 1974). Infants are born with surprisingly good set of perceptual skills and so are fully equipped to follow objects that are 12 inches away, distinguish pitch and level of sound and recognize parents faces from others. By one month old the infants posture and large movements should be fully developed. The infants arms would be more active than the legs, the infant will turn head away as you rub its ear, their head will descent loosely unless supported however the neck muscles will start to develop at this stage (Sheridan, 1975). During the VRA testing it is apparent that Ellies small and large motor skills such as handling of small objects, hand-eye coordination, grasping, sitting upright and walking seem to be fully developed. However her language development was lacking which may be due to her hearing loss. Ellies mother raised a slight concern on Ellies ability to talk. During the appointment Ellies speech was very difficult to understand and her sentence structures were as to be expecte d from a child with a hearing loss. Infants with a hearing loss often cannot hear speech sounds and therefore misinterpret and misuse their vocabulary. Developmental problems such as speech and language may also contribute to a reduced academic achievement and social isolation from the children which can be remarkably distressing for the parents (ASHA, 2012). Erik Erikson was the first psychologist to develop the psychosocial model of personality, which is the foremost known model of development and personality. He believed that development is constant throughout ones life. Eriksons model expresses how a childs social experiences influence an individuals value of self and their personality (Mcleod, 2008). Like Erik, John Bowlby (1907-1990) was another theorist concerned with child development which created the attachment theory. Bowlby suggested that an infants personality is influenced by their childhood relationships. According to Bowlby: children come into the world biologically pre-programmed to form attachments with others, because this will help them to survive (Cited from Mcleod, 2007). Children who fail to form this real attachment by around 6 months of age tend to be less sociable, less emotionally mature and more aggressive. Therefore for a positive and healthy development of a child like Ellie it is essential for a strong attac hment between the infant and the primary caregiver (usually the mother). However Ellies positive behaviour and social skills seemed to be lacking. A child similar to Ellie with a significant hearing loss may often feel isolated as they cannot communicate therefore it is vital at this stage for the mother to understand this and meet their childs needs (Shaffer, 1993). From informally assessing Ellie behaviour and her mother it is clear that this initial bonding may be absent between the two. Vygotsky the theorist believed that a childs development associates mostly to mental development, being language, interpretation processes and thought (Cattan and Tilford, 2006). However Jean Piaget (1896-1980) concluded that a childs cognitive development is formed from a distinct series of stages. He believed that a childs cognitive development skills take place due to advancement of the brain and the childs abilities to interact with their surroundings. Piaget characterizes the development of children into four set stages with each stage symbolizing the childs appreciation of the reality and its surroundings at that stage. The first two years of an infants development is regarded to as the sensorimotor stage. During this stage the child learns and experiences the world around them through their senses and movement. The child accomplishes an activity and by repeating this activity they are able to advance on their new knowledge and awareness (Bee and Boyd, 2004). Piaget termed the cognitive structures as schemes (set of activity, anticipations and memories that allow the child to understand their surroundings). Therefore for Ellie to keep up with her cognitive development she must have good coordination between her sensory (hearing) and motor actions (movement). Ellies cognitive development might be underdeveloped as she receives less sensory information due to her hearing loss and therefore has less motor actions. The effect of a hearing loss on the cognitive development of a child like Ellie is rather intricate due to the different ways cultures, families and human kind respond to children whom attempts or fails to talk and communicate due to their hearing loss (Mayberry, 2002). There are also learning theories involved in cognitive development. Ivan Pavlov devised the classically conditioned model, which is described as a learning process that takes place when an unfamiliar stimulus is presented into the system. As the new-born is repeatedly conditioned to the same stimuli (brush cheek before feeding), this stimuli will become a conditioned stimuli in the course of time. Operant conditioning is also classed as a learning process as the new-born learns and interacts through the use of reinforcement such as a toy, smile, attention or food (Bee and Boyd, 2007). During the VRA testing, Ellie was conditioned to move her eyes in the direction of the sound source and rewarded visually by a lighted up toy (BATOD, 2012). After great encouragement Ellie performed a positive VRA test and therefore show no signs of abnormal learning process. Starting at the age of 1 and increasing until the age of 5, repetitive and exploratory play is very common in children. At around Ellies age it is expected of children to be able to push and pull large toys, carry a toy, grasp crayon, enjoy coloured books and perform VRA testing. However in Ellies case and for any child with a hearing loss these normal behaviours might be deficient or absent as hearing and speech are the vital implements to learning process, play and development of social skills (Sheridan, 1975). Hearing is essential to a childs development, yet children with hearing problems continue to be an under identified and undeserved population (Cited from ASHA, 2012). Not only does a childs hearing loss affect the childs development it also affects the parents/primary caregivers involved inflicting feelings of anxiety on their new responsibilities for their child. Therefore it is essential to provide the parents or the primary caregivers the vital information and advice on t heir childs hearing loss for the childs positive development. Ellies mum needed great encouragement on this in order to improve Ellies self-esteem and help her to positively develop (ASHA, 2012). Conclusion Hearing impairment has a great effect on the childs social life, cognitive and learning development. Ellie has proven to have normal physical development; however her cognitive and social development and speech and language capabilities are evidently hindered by her hearing impairment. It is therefore essential to supply the family of the child with any valuable information that will benefit the childs development and stress the importance of early intervention. The earlier the hearing impairment is recognized and intervened the greater the developmental outcome. Without knowing the normative of a childs developmental process it is hard to analyse the exact cause of the childs behaviour. Â  Ellies hearing loss has evidently delayed her revealing and acceptant communication skills (speech and language) leading to her social seclusion and low self-esteem. Â  Her aggressive behaviour and her lack of interest in others can be explained by her lack of auditory input and therefore lack of her ability to effectively communicate. Â  It is important for Ellies mum to appreciate the challenges that Ellie is faced before managing them properly herself. Â  However it is also crucial to support the entire family through Ellies developmental progress and early family concentrated intervention is advised to advance Ellies language and cognitive development (ASHA, 2012). An additional appointment was made for Ellie to see if they have changed their mind regarding to trying a hearing aid, however Ellie will continue to receive advice and care from us Audiologist, a specialised paediatrician and speech and language therapist throughout. Â  From this case study I am able to fully appreciate the effect that a hearing impairment has on the developmental process of a child. Â  However I am also very aware for the future of the importance to support the entire family when attempting to provide the best care for a child similar to Ellie. Why is ellie aggressive and dont socialise..can categorize them into being naughty straight away. Important that ellie gets enough attention she needs to help her develop, but important that this doesnt overurule the development of other kids. Vital to give all info need to parents and stress on the importance of early implementation better outcome. http://www.asha.org/About/news/Press-Releases/2011/Do-You-Understand-The-Effects-Of-Hearing-Loss-On-Your-Child-s-Development.htm http://unitron.com/unitron/global/en/consumer/children-c/supporting.html http://asha.org/public/hearing/disorders/effects.htm http://entcentre.com/FAQs/impact_of_hearing_loss_in_childr.htm http://unitron.com/unitron/global/en/consumer/children-c/supporting.html http://www.asha.org/About/news/Press-Releases/2011/Do-You-Understand-The-Effects-Of-Hearing-Loss-On-Your-Child-s-Development.htm conclusion?

Second Hand Smoke :: essays research papers

Second Hand Smoke Second Hand Smoke In the 1950's and 60's scientists gave the people a lot of evidence on the deadly effects of smoking where the tobacco companies on the other hand tried to put the doubt in people’s minds through the campaigns to show that it is not all true. By the time people actually decided to take care of their health and finally saw how life-threatening smoking could be by real life examples, the tobacco companies already got rich from its sales. Nowadays, nobody doubts that â€Å"firsthand† smoke is deadly to your health and it causes lung cancer and heart disease in adults and asthma and bronchitis in children. Now the industry is onto the secondhand smoke. Scientists and researchers are representing a lot of evidence and research that has been done throughout the years showing that the secondhand smoke can also cause a lung cancer in nonsmokers. The study has been done of people who have been long exposed to secondhand smoke and it shows that 26 out of 33 publ ished studies indicate a link between secondhand smoke and lung cancer. The study estimates that the people that were breathing secondhand smoke were 8 to 150 percent more likely to get lung cancer. The tobacco companies are trying to argue the facts and are still in serious debate about the health hazards of breathing a secondhand smoke. A lot of anti-smoking organizations are trying to turn smoking in public into a private activity that does not have to involve nonsmokers breathing secondhand smoke. What is even more important is that many of these organizations convinced a lot of smokers to cut back or quit completely. The problem of secondhand smoke is increasing because it is so common in our society. It makes secondhand smoke the third-ranking cause of lung cancer among nonsmokers. Mothers who live with a smoking spouse have to realize the ill effects of secondhand smoke on children even before they are born. The smoking components reach the developing fetus through the mother . Infants that are born in a smoking environment weigh less and have a weaker chance of becoming a fully developed child. Secondhand smoke leads to blood clots and damages arterial linings which are the two most leading factors in the development of heart disease. The tobacco companies got scared of the effect that the secondhand smoke research can do to the cigarette makers.

John Q. Adams :: essays research papers

John Quinsy Adams was born in Braintree Massachusetts. His other, Abigail Smith Adams and his father, John Adams (2nd president of the United States of America) trained John Quinsy very well. At ten years old John Q. traveled with his father on diplomat missions to Europe. He learned French fluently there in a private school at Paris. After Studying French in Paris Adams studied at the University of Leiden. In 1782 through 1783 he was a secretary and interpreter of the French in Germany. After being a secretary and interpreter in Germany, He traveled to Holland   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  John Q. Adams was very good and smart at languages, history and mathematics. By the end of his school he was a very good and trust worthy lawyer. Adams came particularly to George Washington’s attention because of the articles he published in the newspaper about defending the president’s policies. As a result of this â€Å"† defending for rights† Washington put Adams in the place for a Dutch ministering the Netherlands. After all this, President James Monroe called Adams to become Secretary of State in 1817.As secretary John Q. Adams was pleased with the schools he participated in, in the past years because they paid off.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Adams greatest achievements Secretary of State were the Transcontinental Treaty with Spain. Which was signed on February 22. By this treaty Spain acknowledged east Florida and west Florida to become part of the United States of America.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  John Quinsy Adams may have been the greatest United States Secretary of State. He was not one of the greatest presidents He was really a minority president chosen by the House of Representatives they get the most. Jackson had received the most of the popular votes both at poles and in the state but he lacked a constitutional majority, (which is a major in college) Clay one of the four can dates through all his support in 1824 to Adams in the house in February 1825.After secret conferences between the two electing Adams in the first ballot. Clay had put Adams into the White House in order to become his Secretary of State and successor.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  President Adams believed that the American Revelation had already won liberty, at least for White House people, and that this liberty was guaranteed the constitution of the United Sates of America. His policy was to let there be more national power and to make freedom better for the people.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  On

Pete Rose Essay -- Baseball Hall of Fame Baseball Players Essays

Pete Rose Bart Giamatti’s decision to ban Pete Rose from the Baseball Hall of Fame was not a fair decision at all. Pete Rose was placed on Baseball’s ineligible list in 1989 when commissioner of baseball, Bart Giamatti concluded that Rose had bet on baseball games, including games involving his own team, the Cincinnati Reds. In an agreement made with Baseball, Rose accepted his banishment from the sport. Although he never admitted to having gambled on baseball games (Maury). Pete Rose was a phenomenal baseball player and manager. He was accused of gambling. His team while he was managing was supposedly involved. Bart Giamatti’s severe punishment of Pete Rose is a very controversial topic in the world of sports. There are a few rules that must have been followed to be inducted to the Hall of Fame. The one that is keeping Rose away is rule five. Rule five states: Voting shall be based upon the player’s record, playing ability, integrity, sportsmanship, character, and contributions to the team or teams on which the player played (Maury). This rule has been tested and beaten many times. Many players have entered the Baseball Hall of Fame such as the very unlikable Ty Cobb, the drinking Babe Ruth, the umpire abusing John McGraw, the racist Cap Anson, Gaylord Perry a suspected cheater, and the gambling Leo Durocher. Those are just a few of the baseball players who somehow made into the Hall of Fame and got passed rule five (Ritter). Pete Rose’s problem was not even as severe as all of these other men. The argument to this is that if these men can make it into the Hall of Fame why is Pete Rose banned. It is obvious that these players made it there with just their playing abilities and not by all of the other characteristics needed to be inducted into the Hall of Fame (Maury). Pete Rose started playing professional baseball in 1960 in the minor leagues and by 1963 he reached the Major Leagues as a rookie second baseman with the National Leagueà ¢â‚¬â„¢s Cincinnati Reds. Rose won the National League’s Rookie of the Year Award for 1963. He spent most of his 24 year career playing with the Reds, Rose also played with the Phillies and the Expos. In 1985 Rose broke one of the most â€Å"unbreakable† records of all time, by passing out Ty Cobb for the most career hits ever (Sports Illustrated.). Rose holds many records, some of which are: most games played, most at bats, and mos... ...cardinal rule of baseball and bet on baseball games. The day after Giamatti banned Rose from baseball, Giamatti held a press conference. He said that the matter of Pete Rose is now closed. It will be debated and discussed. Let no one think Rose has hurt the game, it will pass, and the game will go forward. Bart Giamatti made it clear that Rose was forever banished from baseball and he will never have another chance (Ritter). When Pete Rose was place on the ineligible list in 1989, the Hall of Fame rule number three said that any player on Baseball’s ineligible list shall not be eligible for the Hall of Fame. According to the current version of Baseball’s rules, Rose can be eligible for the Hall of Fame by getting of the banishment list. No one in the history of Major League Baseball has been able to get off the list. Pete Rose can petition Baseball’s powers to get off the list. Once he is off the list, he can be considered for the Hall of Fame (Ritter). No on e is sure if it is Pete Rose’s goal in life to be in the Hall of Fame. It might be hard but it is possible that Rose can be taken off the ineligible list. If he really wants to be in the Hall fame, he has the chance (Ritter).

Anomie: Sociology and People

Anomie describes a lack of social norms; â€Å"normlessness†. It describes the breakdown of social bonds between an individual and their community, if under unruly scenarios possibly resulting in fragmentation of social identity and rejection of self-regulatory values. It was popularized by French sociologist Emile Durkheim in his influential book Suicide (1897). Durkheim borrowed the word from French philosopher Jean-Marie Guyau. Durkheim never uses the term normlessness; rather, he describes anomie as â€Å"a rule that is a lack of rule†, â€Å"derangement†, and â€Å"an insatiable will†.For Durkheim, anomie arises more generally from a mismatch between personal or group standards and wider social standards, or from the lack of a social ethic, which produces moral deregulation and an absence of legitimate aspirations. This is a nurtured condition: Anomie in common parlance is thought to mean something like â€Å"at loose ends†. The Oxford English Dictionary lists a range of definitions, beginning with a disregard of divine law, through the 19th and 20th century sociological terms meaning an absence of accepted social standards or values.Most sociologists associate the term with Durkheim, who used the concept to speak of the ways in which an individual's actions are matched, or integrated, with a system of social norms and practices †¦ Durkheim also formally posited anomie as a mismatch, not simply as the absence of norms. Thus, a society with too much rigidity and little individual discretion could also produce a kind of anomie, a mismatch between individual circumstances and larger social mores. Thus, fatalistic suicide arises when a person is too rule-governed, when there is †¦ no free horizon of expectation. Durkheim attempts to explain the function of the division of labor, and makes the observation that it creates social cohesion. The industrial revolution, of course, produced great tension and turmoil, and Du rkheim recognized this. He resolved the contradiction by developing the notion of anomie. Anomie is usually translated as normlessness, but it best understood as insufficient normative regulation. During periods of rapid social change, individuals sometimes experience alienation from group goals and values. They lose sight of their shared interests based on mutual dependence. In this condition, they are less constrained by group norms.Normative values become generalized, rather than personally embraced. The Sociological Imagination (1959), which is considered Mills' most influential book on the sociology profession, describes a mindset for studying sociology — the sociological imagination — that stresses being able to connect individual experiences and societal relationships. Mills asserts that a critical task for social scientists is to â€Å"translate private troubles into public issues,† which is something that it is very difficult for ordinary citizens to do . Sociologists, then, rightly connect their autobiographical, personal challenges to social institutions.Social scientists should then connect those institutions to social structure(s) and locate them within a historical narrative. The three components that form the sociological imagination are: History: how a society came to be and how it is changing and how history is being made in it Biography: the nature of â€Å"human nature† in a society; what kinds of people inhabit a particular society Social Structure: how the various institutional orders in a society operate, which ones are dominant, how they are held together, how they might be changing, etc. The Promise Of Sociology C.Wright Mills  · Men now days often feel that their lives are a series of traps. They feel in their worlds they can’t overcome their troubles. According to Mills this is correct.  · You cannot understand the life of an individual or the history of society without understanding both.  · Pe ople do not see how the changes in history affect them. The do not see how the ups and downs they experience in their lives are affected by their society.  · People do not see the connection that exists between the patterns in their lives and the course of history. People need a quality of mind to use information to develop reason to make connections between what is going on in the world and what is happening to themselves. He calls this the Sociological Imagination.  · Sociological Imagination allows us to grasp history and biography and the relations between the two within society. That is both its task and its promise. This is the purpose of classical social analysts.  · The most important distinction is between the issues and the troubles. Issues- have to do with matters that transcend these local environments of the individual and the range of his inner life.  · Troubles- occur within the character of the individual and within his range of his immediate relations with o thers. It has to do with his self and with those areas of social life in which he is directly and personally aware.  · The sociological imagination is supposed to help man to understand that what is happening to themselves is a result of intersections of history and biography within their society.Class consciousness is a term used in social sciences and political theory, particularly Marxism, to refer to the beliefs that a person holds regarding one's social class or economic rank in society, the structure of their class, and their class interests. Defining a person's social class can be a determinant for his awareness of it. Marxists define classes on the basis of their relation to the means of production – especially on whether they own capital. Non-Marxist social scientists distinguish various social strata on the basis of income, occupation, or status.Early in the nineteenth century, the labels â€Å"working classes† and â€Å"middle classes† were already coming into common usage. â€Å"The old hereditary aristocracy, reinforced by the new gentry who owed their success to commerce, industry, and the professions, evolved into an â€Å"upper class†. Its consciousness was formed in part by public schools (in the British sense) and Universities. The upper class tenaciously maintained control over the political system, depriving not only the working classes but the middle classes of a voice in the political process. Solidarity is the integration, and degree and type of integration, shown by a society or group with people and their neighbors. It refers to the ties in a society that bind people to one another. The term is generally employed in sociology and the other social sciences. What forms the basis of solidarity varies between societies. In simple societies it may be mainly based around kinship and shared values. In more complex societies there are various theories as to what contributes to a sense of social solidarity.Accordi ng to Emile Durkheim, the types of social solidarity correlate with types of society. Durkheim introduced the terms â€Å"mechanical† and â€Å"organic solidarity† as part of his theory of the development of societies in The Division of Labor in Society (1893). In a society exhibiting mechanical solidarity, its cohesion and integration comes from the homogeneity of individuals—people feel connected through similar work, educational and religious training, and lifestyle. Mechanical solidarity normally operates in â€Å"traditional† and small scale societies. In simpler societies (e. g. tribal), solidarity is usually based on kinship ties of familial networks. Organic solidarity comes from the interdependence that arises from specialization of work and the complementarities between people—a development which occurs in â€Å"modern† and â€Å"industrial† societies. Definition: it is social cohesion based upon the dependence individuals h ave on each other in more advanced societies. Although individuals perform different tasks and often have different values and interest, the order and very solidarity of society depends on their reliance on each other to perform their specified tasks.Organic here is referring to the interdependence of the component parts. Thus, social solidarity is maintained in more complex societies through the interdependence of its component parts (e. g. , farmers produce the food to feed the factory workers who produce the tractors that allow the farmer to produce the food) mechanical and organic solidarity, in the theory of the French social scientist Emile Durkheim (1858–1917), the social cohesiveness of small, undifferentiated societies (mechanical) and of societies differentiated by a relatively complex division of labour (organic).Mechanical solidarity is the social integration of members of a society who have common values and beliefs. These common values and beliefs constitute a à ¢â‚¬Å"collective conscience† that works internally in individual members to cause them to cooperate. Because, in Durkheim’s view, the forces causing members of society to cooperate were much like the internal energies causing the molecules to cohere in a solid, he drew upon the terminology of physical science in coining the term mechanical solidarity.In contrast to mechanical solidarity, organic solidarity is social integration that arises out of the need of individuals for one another’s services. In a society characterized by organic solidarity, there is relatively greater division of labour, with individuals functioning much like the interdependent but differentiated organs of a living body. Society relies less on imposing uniform rules on everyone and more on regulating the relations between different groups and persons, often through the greater use of contracts and laws. Durkheim dentified two major types of social integration, mechanical and organic. The fo rmer refers to integration that is based on shared beliefs and sentiments, while the latter refers to integration that results from specialization and interdependence. These types reflect different ways that societies organized themselves. Where there is little differentiation in the kinds of labor that individuals engage in, integration based on common beliefs is to be found; in societies where work is highly differentiated, solidarity is the consequence of mutual dependence.The distinction reveals Durkheim's thinking about how modern societies differ from earlier ones, and consequently, how solidarity changes as a society becomes more complex. Societies of mechanical solidarity tend to be relatively small and organized around kinship affiliations. Social relations are regulated by the shared system of beliefs, what Durkheim called the common conscience. Violations of social norms were taken as a direct threat to the shared identity, and so, reactions to deviance tended to emphasiz e punishment. As a society becomes larger, division of labor increases.A complex organization of labor is necessary, in larger societies, for the production of material life (as Marx suggested). Because people begin to specialize, the basis for the collective conscience is diminished. Solidarity based on the common belief system is no longer possible. Complexity does not lead to disintegration, Durkheim argued, but rather, to social solidarity based on interdependence. Since people are no longer producing all the things that they need, they must interact. Integration results from a recognition that each needs the other. Societies of organic solidarity are arranged around economic and political organizations.Their legal systems regulate behavior based on principles of exchange and restitution, rather than punishment. Manifest and latent functions are social scientific concepts of sociology by Robert K. Merton. Merton appeared interested in sharpening the conceptual tools to be employ ed in a functional analysis. Manifest functions and dysfunctions are conscious and deliberate, the latent ones the unconscious and unintended. While functions are intended (manifest) or unintended (latent), and have a positive effect on society, dysfunctions are unintended or unrecognized (latent) and have a negative effect on society.Manifest functions are the consequences that people observe or expect. It is explicitly stated and understood by the participants in the relevant action. The manifest function of a rain dance, used as an example by Merton in his 1967 Social Theory and Social Structure, is to produce rain, and this outcome is intended and desired by people participating in the ritual. Latent functions are those that are neither recognized nor intended. A latent function of a behavior is not explicitly stated, recognized, or intended by the people involved. Thus, they are identified observers.In the example of rain ceremony, the latent function reinforces the group ident ity by providing a regular opportunity for the members of a group to meet and engage in a common activity. Ideal type (German: Idealtypus), also known as pure type, is a typological term most closely associated with antipositivist sociologist Max Weber (1864–1920). For Weber, the conduct of social science depends upon the construction of hypothetical concepts in the abstract. The â€Å"ideal type† is therefore a subjective element in social theory and research; one of many subjective elements which necessarily distinguish sociology from natural science.An ideal type is formed from characteristics and elements of the given phenomena, but it is not meant to correspond to all of the characteristics of any one particular case. It is not meant to refer to perfect things, moral ideals nor to statistical averages but rather to stress certain elements common to most cases of the given phenomena. It is also important to pay attention that in using the word â€Å"ideal† M ax Weber refers to the world of ideas (German: Gedankenbilder â€Å"thoughtful pictures†) and not to perfection; these â€Å"ideal types† are idea-constructs that help put the chaos of social reality in order.Weber himself wrote: â€Å"An ideal type is formed by the one-sided accentuation of one or more points of view and by the synthesis of a great many diffuse, discrete, more or less present and occasionally absent concrete individual phenomena, which are arranged according to those onesidedly emphasized viewpoints into a unified analytical construct†¦ † It is a useful tool for comparative sociology in analyzing social or economic phenomena, having advantages over a very general, abstract idea and a specific historical example.It can be used to analyze both a general, suprahistorical phenomenon (like capitalism) or historically unique occurrences (like Weber's own Protestant Ethics analysis). Weber's three kinds of ideal types are distinguished by their l evels of abstraction. First are the ideal types rooted in historical particularities, such as the â€Å"western city,† â€Å"the Protestant Ethic,† or â€Å"modern capitalism,† which refer to phenomena that appear only in specific historical periods and in particular cultural areas.A second kind involves abstract elements of social reality–such concepts as â€Å"bureaucracy† or â€Å"feudalism†Ã¢â‚¬â€œthat may be found in a variety of historical and cultural contexts. Finally, there is a third kind of ideal type, which Raymond Aron calls â€Å"rationalizing reconstructions of a particular kind of behavior. † According to Weber, all propositions in economic theory, for example, fall into this category. They all refer to the ways in which men would behave were they actuated by purely economic motives, were they purely economic men. Verstehen (German pronunciation: [f te ]), in the context of German philosophy and social sciences in gene ral, has been used since the late 19th century – in English as in German – with the particular sense of the â€Å"interpretive or participatory† examination of social phenomena. The term is closely associated with the work of the German sociologist, Max Weber, whose antipositivism established an alternative to prior sociological positivism and economic determinism, rooted in the analysis of social action. In anthropology, Verstehen has come to mean a systematic interpretive process in which an outside observer of a culture attempts to relate to it and understand others.Verstehen is now seen as a concept and a method central to a rejection of positivistic social science (although Weber appeared to think that the two could be united). Verstehen refers to understanding the meaning of action from the actor's point of view. It is entering into the shoes of the other, and adopting this research stance requires treating the actor as a subject, rather than an object of your observations. It also implies that unlike objects in the natural world human actors are not simply the product of the pulls and pushes of external forces.Individuals are seen to create the world by organizing their own understanding of it and giving it meaning. To do research on actors without taking into account the meanings they attribute to their actions or environment is to treat them like objects. Interpretative Sociology (verstehende Soziologie) is the study of society that concentrates on the meanings people associate to their social world. Interpretative society strives to show that reality is constructed by people themselves in their daily lives. There is also a tendency in modern English not to follow the German-language practice of capitalizing nouns.Verstehen roughly translates to â€Å"meaningful understanding† or putting yourself in the shoes of others to see things from their perspective. Interpretive sociology differs from scientific (or positivist) socio logy in three ways: Interpretive sociology deals with the meaning attached to behavior, unlike scientific sociology which focuses on action. Interpretive sociology sees reality as being constructed by people, unlike scientific sociology which sees an objective reality â€Å"out there†. Interpretive sociology relies on qualitative data, unlike scientific sociology which tends to make use of quantitative data.Functional Integration This refers to the interdependence among parts of a social system. Just as the human body is made up of interrelated parts each of which plays a role in maintaining the whole, so social systems are composed of interconnected parts that both support and depend on one another. Each part has contributions to make if the sum is to work well. These contributions are its functions – that is, functions are the effects that some social groups, event, or institution has within a system of relationships to other phenomena.Functionally integrated systems can also produce dysfunctions, or side-effects that are not good for the system. Pollution is a dysfunctional consequence of our industrial system. Social Systems can also disintegrate. Like the old Soviet Union. Functional integration refers to the integration of values with systems of action and it therefore involves priorities and allocations of diverse value component among proper occasion and relationshipsAs an institution changes, the others react to that change and compensate for it, thereby changing themselves in the process. But all the parts remain integrated into the single unit.Rational choice theory argues that social systems are organized in ways that structure the alternatives and consequences facing individuals so that they behave rationally. This allows them to best serve their self-interest within the constraints and resources that go with social systems and their status in them. Rational choice theory is the view that people behave as they do because they believe that performing their chosen actions has more benefits than costs. That is, people make rational choices based on their goals, and those choices govern their behavior. Some sociologists use rational choice theory to explain social change.According to them, social change occurs because individuals have made rational choices. For example, suppose many people begin to conserve more energy, lowering thermostats and driving less. An explanation for this social change is that individual people have decided that conserving energy will help them achieve their goals (for example, save money and live more healthfully) and cause little inconvenience. Critics argue people do not always act on the basis of cost-benefit analyses. Culture This is the language, norms, values, beliefs, knowledge, and symbols that make up a way of life.It is the understanding of how to act that people share with one another in any stable, self-reproducing group. Participation in a culture makes possible a meaningful understanding of one's own actions and those of others. Without culture it would be hard to communicate. When one culture is particularly distinct and set apart from the rest it is called a subculture. Individuals may participate in more than one subculture. No one is ever cultureless, however, for sharing in some culture or combination of cultures is an essential part of what we think of as humans.Norms are the agreed-upon expectations and rules by which a culture guides the behavior of its members in any given situation. Of course, norms vary widely across cultural groups. Folkways, sometimes known as â€Å"conventions† or â€Å"customs,† are standards of behavior that are socially approved but not morally significant. Mores are norms of morality. Breaking mores will offend most people of a culture. Finally, laws are a formal body of rules enacted by the state and backed by the power of the state. Social norms  are group-held beliefs about how members should behav e in a given context.Sociologists  describe norms as laws that govern society’s behaviors. Folkways are often referred to as â€Å"customs. † They are standards of behavior that are socially approved but not morally significant. They are norms for everyday behavior that people follow for the sake of tradition or convenience. Breaking a folkway does not usually have serious consequences. Mores are strict norms that control moral and ethical behavior. Mores are norms based on definitions of right and wrong. Unlike folkways, mores are morally significant. People feel strongly about them and violating them typically results in disapproval.A law is a norm that is written down and enforced by an official law enforcement agency. A culture's values are its ideas about what is good, right, fair, and just. Sociologists disagree, however, on how to conceptualize values. Conflict theory focuses on how values differ between groups within a culture, while functionalism focuses on the shared values within a culture. For example, American sociologist Robert K. Merton suggested that the most important values in American society are wealth, success, power, and prestige, but that everyone does not have an equal opportunity to attain these values.Functional sociologist Talcott Parsons noted that Americans share the common value of the â€Å"American work ethic,† which encourages hard work. Other sociologists have proposed a common core of American values, including accomplishment, material success, problem-solving, reliance on science and technology, democracy, patriotism, charity, freedom, equality and justice, individualism, responsibility, and accountability. A culture, though, may harbor conflicting values. For instance, the value of material success may conflict with the value of charity. Or the value of equality may conflict with the value of individualism.Such contradictions may exist due to an inconsistency between people's actions and their profess ed values, which explains why sociologists must carefully distinguish between what people do and what they say. Joan Jacobs Brumberg is a social historian and academic. She lectures and writes about the experiences of adolescents through history until the present day. In the subject area of Gender Studies, she has written about boys and violence, and girls and body image. Brumberg says that adolescence and childhood have been made more difficult for women due to the much earlier age of menarche than in the past.The average age at menstruation has dropped from 16 in 1890, to 12 while psychological development, she believes, has not accelerated. Also, consumer culture has added to people's insecurities about their bodies. It is now normal and fashionable for girls to dress in a sexualized way. Jean Kilbourne, Ed. D. (born January 4, 1943) is a feminist author, speaker, and filmmaker who is internationally recognized for her work on the image of women in advertising and her critical st udies of alcohol and tobacco advertising.She is also credited with introducing the idea of educating about media literacy as a way to prevent problems she viewed as originating from mass media advertising campaigns. These include the concepts of the tyranny of the beauty ideal, the connection between the objectification of women and violence, the themes of liberation and weight control exploited in tobacco advertising aimed at women, the targeting of alcoholics by the alcohol industry, addiction as a love affair, and many others.Hyperreality is generally defined as a condition in which what is real and what is fiction are blended together so that there is no clear distinction between where one ends and the other begins. It is a postmodern philosophy that deals in part with semiotics, or the study of the signs that surround people in everyday life and what they actually mean. Hyperreality is a way of characterizing what our consciousness defines as â€Å"real† in a world where a multitude of media can radically shape and filter an original event or experience.Hyperreality is exploited in advertising for almost everything, using a pseudo-world to enable people to be the characters they wish to be. Advertising sells the public through strong, desirable images, and many consumers buy into the brand's point of view and products. If the consumer wants to be seen as a sex icon, he or she should buy the most expensive jeans as worn or designed by his or her favorite celebrity. Although the clothing itself has limited actual value, they symbolize a state of being that some consumers want.Every time a person enters a large shopping area with a certain theme, he or she may be entering a hyperreal world. Theme parks such as Disneyworld or the casinos in Las Vegas are hyperrealities in which a person can get lost for as long as his or her money lasts. There is no reality in these places, only a construct that is designed to represent reality, allowing the person to exist temporarily in a world outside of what is real. Sociobiology is a field of scientific study which is based on the assumption that social behavior has resulted from evolution and attempts to explain and examine social behavior within that context.Often considered a branch of biology and sociology, it also draws from ethology, anthropology, evolution, zoology, archaeology, population genetics, and other disciplines. Within the study of human societies, sociobiology is very closely allied to the fields of Darwinian anthropology, human behavioral ecology and evolutionary psychology. Sociobiology investigates social behaviors, such as mating patterns, territorial fights, pack hunting, and the hive society of social insects.It argues that just as selection pressure led to animals evolving useful ways of interacting with the natural environment, it led to the genetic evolution of advantageous social behavior. The Human Animal: A Personal View of the Human Species is a BBC nature docu mentary series written and presented by Desmond Morris. Morris describes it as â€Å"A study of human behavior from a zoological perspective. † He travels the world, filming the diverse customs and habits of various regions while suggesting common roots. Stephanie Coontz studies the history of American families, marriage, and changes in gender roles.Her book The Way We Never Were argues against several common myths about families of the past, including the idea that the 1950s family was traditional or the notion that families used to rely solely on their own resources. Granville Stanley Hall was a pioneering American psychologist and educator. His interests focused on childhood development and evolutionary theory. Hall's major books were Adolescence: Its Psychology and Its Relations to Physiology, Anthropology, Sociology, Sex, Crime and Religion (1904) and Aspects of Child Life and Education (1921).His book Adolescence, was based on the results of the Child Study Movement. Ha ll described his system of psychology, which he called â€Å"genetic psychology. † His ideas were influenced by Charles Darwin. In the book, Hall described the evolutionary benefits of development from the womb to adolescence. The book itself is divided into six sections: biological and anthropological standpoint, medical standpoint, health and its tests, nubility of educated women, fecundity of educated women and education. Hall hoped that this book would become a guide for teachers and social workers in the education system.He was instrumental in the development of educational psychology, and attempted to determine the effect adolescence has on education. Hall believed that the pre-adolescent child develops to its best when it is not forced to follow constraints, but rather to go through the stages of evolution freely. He believed that before a child turned six or seven, the child should be able to experience how one lived in the simian stage. In this stage, the child would be able to express his animal spirits. The child is growing rapidly at this stage and the energy levels are high.The child is unable to use reasoning, show sensitiveness towards religion, or social discernment. By age eight, the child should be at stage two. This, Hall believed, is the stage where formal learning should begin. This is when the brain is at full size and weight. It is considered normal to be cruel and rude to others at this stage for the reasoning skills are still not developed. The child should not have to deal with moralizing conflicts or ideas, his is not yet ready at this stage. The child's physical health is most important now. In the stage of the dolescent, the child now has a rebirth into a sexed life. Hall argued that at this point, there should no longer be coeducation. Both sexes can't optimally learn and get everything out of the lessons in the presence the opposite sex. And, this is when true education can begin. The child is ready to deal with moral issu es, kindness, love, and service for others. Reasoning powers are beginning, but are still not strong. Hall argued that the high school should be a place similar to a â€Å"people's college† so that it could be more of an ending for those who would not be continuing their education to the next level.Coming of Age in Samoa is a book by American anthropologist Margaret Mead based upon her research and study of youth on the island of Ta'u in the Samoa Islands which primarily focused on adolescent girls. Mead was 23 years old when she carried out her field work in Samoa. First published in 1928, the book launched Mead as a pioneering researcher and the most famous anthropologist in the world. Since its first publication, Coming of Age in Samoa was the most widely read book in the field of anthropology, until Napoleon Chagnon's â€Å"Yanomamo: The Fierce People† took the lead in sales.The book has sparked years of ongoing and intense debate and controversy on questions perta ining to society, culture and science. It is a key text in the nature vs. nurture debate as well as issues relating to family, adolescence, gender, social norms and attitudes. Courtesy, modesty, good manners, conformity to definite ethical standards are universal, but what constitutes courtesy, modesty, very good manners, and definite ethical standards is not universal. It is instructive to know that standards differ in the most unexpected ways.Mead's findings suggested that the community ignores both boys and girls until they are about 15 or 16. Before then, children have no social standing within the community. Mead also found that marriage is regarded as a social and economic arrangement where wealth, rank, and job skills of the husband and wife are taken into consideration. Erik Erikson was a German-born American developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory on psychosocial development of human beings. Erikson was a Neo-Freudian. He has been described as an à ¢â‚¬Å"ego psychologist† studying the stages of development, spanning the entire ifespan. Each of Erikson's stages of psychosocial development is marked by a conflict for which successful resolution will result in a favourable outcome, and by an important event that this conflict resolves itself around. The Erikson life-stage virtues, in order of the eight stages in which they may be acquired, are: Basic trust vs. basic mistrust – This stage covers the period of infancy. 0-1 year of age. – Whether or not the baby develops basic trust or basic mistrust is not merely a matter of nurture. It is multi-faceted and has strong social components.It depends on the quality of the maternal relationship. The mother carries out and reflects their inner perceptions of trustworthiness, a sense of personal meaning, etc. on the child. If successful in this, the baby develops a sense of trust, which â€Å"forms the basis in the child for a sense of identityâ€Å". Autonomy vs. Sh ame – Covers early childhood – Introduces the concept of autonomy vs. shame and doubt. During this stage the child is trying to master toilet training. Purpose – Initiative vs. Guilt – Preschool / 3–6 years – Does the child have the ability to or do things on their own, such as dress him or herself?If â€Å"guilty† about making his or her own choices, the child will not function well. Erikson has a positive outlook on this stage, saying that most guilt is quickly compensated by a sense of accomplishment. Competence – Industry vs. Inferiority – School-age / 6-11. Child comparing self-worth to others (such as in a classroom environment). Child can recognize major disparities in personal abilities relative to other children. Erikson places some emphasis on the teacher, who should ensure that children do not feel inferior. Fidelity – Identity vs.Role Confusion – Adolescent / 12 years till 20. Questioning of sel f. Who am I, how do I fit in? Where am I going in life? Erikson believes, that if the parents allow the child to explore, they will conclude their own identity. However, if the parents continually push him/her to conform to their views, the teen will face identity confusion. Intimacy vs. isolation – This is the first stage of adult development. This development usually happens during young adulthood, which is between the ages of 20 to 24. Dating, marriage, family and friendships are important during the stage in their life.By successfully forming loving relationships with other people, individuals are able to experience love and intimacy. Those who fail to form lasting relationships may feel isolated and alone. Generativity vs. stagnation is the second stage of adulthood and happens between the ages of 25-64. During this time people are normally settled in their life and know what is important to them. A person is either making progress in their career or treading lightly in their career and unsure if this is what they want to do for the rest of their working lives.Also during this time, a person is enjoying raising their children and participating in activities, that gives them a sense of purpose. If a person is not comfortable with the way their life is progressing, they're usually regretful about the decisions and feel a sense of uselessness. Ego integrity vs. despair. This stage affects the age group of 65 and on. During this time you have reached the last chapter in your life and retirement is approaching or has already taken place. Many people, who have achieved what was important to them, look back on their lives and feel great accomplishment and a sense of integrity.Conversely, those who had a difficult time during middle adulthood may look back and feel a sense of despair. Thomas Hine- The Rise and Fall of the American Teenager. A history of the American adolescent experience, and why it must change. Persistence of vision is the phenomenon of t he eye by which an afterimage is thought to persist for approximately one twenty-fifth of a second on the retina. The Kinetoscope is an early motion picture exhibition device. The Kinetoscope was designed for films to be viewed by one individual at a time through a peephole viewer window at the top of the device.The Kinetoscope was not a movie projector but introduced the basic approach that would become the standard for all cinematic projection before the advent of video, by creating the illusion of movement by conveying a strip of perforated film bearing sequential images over a light source with a high-speed shutter. The Lumieres held their first private screening of projected motion pictures in 1895. Their first public screening of films at which admission was charged was held on December 28, 1895, at Salon Indien du Grand Cafe in Paris.This history-making presentation featured ten short films, including their first film, Sortie des Usines Lumiere a Lyon (Workers Leaving the Lum iere Factory). Each film is 17 meters long, which, when hand cranked through a projector, runs approximately 50 seconds. The Nickelodeon was the first type of indoor exhibition space dedicated to showing projected motion pictures. Usually set up in converted storefronts, these small, simple theaters charged five cents for admission and flourished from about 1905 to 1915. A movie palace is a erm used to refer to the large, elaborately decorated movie theaters built between the 1910s and the 1940s. The late 1920s saw the peak of the movie palace, with hundreds opened every year between 1925 and 1930. There are three building types in particular which can be subsumed under the label movie palace. First, the classical style movie palace, with its eclectic and luxurious period-revival architecture; second, the atmospheric theatre which has an auditorium ceiling that resembles an open sky as its defining feature and finally, the Art Deco theaters that became popular in the 1930s.